Luke's Theology of the Upside-Down Kingdom

Preface - This is a paper I wrote for my Gospels course at Dallas Theological Seminary.

Like every book of the Bible, Luke provides an invaluable glimpse into God’s redeeming story and His character. However, Luke’s unique perspective of the events of Jesus’s life, works, and teachings emphasize certain aspects of the Gospel narrative over others. Luke makes the reader aware of his own exhaustive study of these very details as he gives what he believes is a comprehensive account of the most pertinent theological details of Jesus’s life and ministry (Lk. 1:3). Thereby, the reader should, with similar care and precision, examine the details Luke so carefully compiled, and use them to form sound theological stances.

Originally, this gospel was intended for Theophilus (Lk. 1:3) who is known to be a Greek official interested in learning more about the details and events of Jesus’s life. As such, Luke’s gospel is crafted in a way to be accessible to this Greek-Gentile audience. He seeks to show that the divine plan of God from the beginning was to make eternal life available to all people through the forgiveness of sins and repentance by granting universal access to the Holy Spirit through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. With this readership in mind, Luke focuses on Jesus as fully God and fully man, the coming “upside-down” kingdom, and God’s universal plan for salvation. One can see this message supported through analysis of the various theological angles Luke can provide in his gospel account.

Theology Proper –God’s Eternal Plan

The first central theme of Luke to address is the “upside-down kingdom”. This phrase was popularized by Anabaptist author Donald Kraybill in 1978 in the aptly titled book, The Upside-Down Kingdom. In the preface to this book, the author explains the origins of this title:

The seed for this book sprouted one summer when I was teaching a weeklong Bible study…. Since I had been reading the gospel of Luke at the time, I decided to use that for the five-session class. Midway through Luke’s story, an exacerbated student explained, “Everything here is upside-down!” It was an unshakeable image of God’s kingdom. I am still fascinated by that striking picture, which gave birth to the first edition of this book [1]

While this book itself is not the central literary reference to be used going forward, the basic idea of this “upside-down” kingdom credited to this author, is, since much of this image of God’s kingdom is drawn from Luke’s gospel.

To begin his illustration of this upside-down kingdom, Kraybill points to two key verses in Luke. First, he points to Mary’s Magnificat in Luke 1:49-53, saying that those at the top of the social pyramid will topple, and those at the bottom will ride to the top.[2] He explains that Mary’s song reflects the age-old Jewish longing for justice for the oppressed and judgement for the rulers of the earth. This is evidenced by a similar song sung by Hannah in 1 Samuel 2:1-11, showing many parallel themes between Mary’s song and this Old Testament prayer. They both talk about the holiness or God, the defeat of those in power, and the exaltation of the lowly. So, this idea of the world’s kingdoms being flipped upside-down for God’s glory is not new. It was present from the early ages of the Old Testament, and brought to fulfillment, starting in the moment the angel announced the conception of Jesus to Mary.

The second key verse Kraybill emphasizes is Luke 3:4-6 when Luke describes the ministry of John the Baptist in fulfillment of Isaiah 40:3-5, saying:

A voice crying out in the wilderness: ‘Prepare the way for the Lord; make his paths straight. Every valley will be filled, and every mountain and hill will be leveled. The crooked will be made straight, and the rough places made smooth. All humanity will see God’s salvation.

This New Testament passage not only references Old Testament prophecies, but echoes it verbatim, showing that all the events of the Jewish people were leading up to the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. This was always God’s divine plan. Throughout history and scripture, God used the lowly to bring His glory. This reflects a key attribute of God’s character: he uses the humble and lowly to bring forth His glory.

Jesus also teaches about the attributes of God’s kingdom, using images that reflect this same theme. In Luke 13:18-21, Jesus uses two symbols to represent God’s kingdom: a mustard seed and yeast. Both are small, seemingly insignificant things that grow over time. There are several aspects of these images that reflect key characteristics of God’s kingdom. First, Jesus’s strategic choice of a mustard seed, and not a traditionally large and grand tree, like a cedar or acacia tree, is to create a sense of dissonance. Mustard seeds grow into what is commonly considered a shrub, but Jesus intentionally calls it a tree to paint a picture of the extravagance of what this humble seed will grow up to become.[3]

Second, in the yeast image, he uses the pervasive character of yeast to show how yet again, a small portion of this ingredient can affect the whole. In this case, it is affecting “a bushel of wheat flour” (Lk. 13:21, CEB), which would make enough bread to feed 150 people. In a similar way, this employs the degree of extravagance of what this humble ingredient will one day effect.[4] Third, between these two images, they both have elements of small beginnings, growth over time, and extravagant provision once they are fully realized. These few short verses do a great deal to show the nature of God’s kingdom and ultimately, his character and his plan to subvert worldly expectations and extend his grace to all people in a plan that has been unfolding over time.

Christology – Kingdom Bringer: Fully God & Fully Man

The theme of God’s upside-down kingdom continues through Luke’s portrayal of Jesus’s ministry. He consistently reaches out to the Gentiles, Samaritans, women, children, tax collectors, sinners, and others often considered outcasts in Israel. As MacArthur puts it, “From the outset of Jesus’ public ministry (4:18) to the Lord’s final words on the cross (23:40-43), Luke underscored this theme of Christ’s ministry to the pariahs of society.”[5] These actions were shocking to Jewish officials at the time, and this was intentional. Jesus used these opportunities to make salient points about God’s character and therefore, his ministry.

A notable example is in Luke 13:10-17 when Jesus performed a healing on a woman on the Sabbath at the synagogue, within plain view of the Jewish leaders. Once Jesus performed this miracle, the synagogue leader rebuked the woman for seeking healing on the Sabbath and tells her she should have come any of the other six days of the week when it was “lawful” for healings to be performed (Lk. 13:14). This was not the first time Jesus’s actions on the Sabbath were called into question, and surely, He anticipated resistance when He performed this miracle. He responded by exposing the hypocrisy of the Jewish leaders, saying that even on the Sabbath, they do not neglect to care for the lives of their animals, yet they rebuke Jesus for caring for the life of a woman in physical bondage to Satan for 18 years (Lk. 13:15-16). His response shows that, as Limbaugh describes it, “the Sabbath, of all days, should not be a day when Satan gets a pass.”[6] In one well-timed healing action, Jesus simultaneously brought glory to the lowly by restoring this woman’s health, and putting the arrogance of the Jewish leaders to shame by exposing the hypocrisy of their rebuke, showcasing God’s upside-down kingdom.

Luke also emphasizes Jesus’s full humanity, as the Son of God who came to save the lost.[7] The best illustration of this point can be found in the story of Jesus raising the widow’s son in Luke 7:11-17. Jesus is traveling with his disciples and as usual, a large crowd is following, but they run into a large funeral procession. Then Jesus notices the woman, who is the mother of the dead man, who is her only son. It is also noted that she is a widow (Lk. 7:12). Within this cultural context, being both a widow and a motherless child means that this woman is now completely alone, with no prospects and no one to take care of her, which is why her grief was so moving to Jesus. Unlike the healing of the woman at the synagogue that was meant to be provocative, this miracle was marked by pure compassion. Jesus begins by offering a word of comfort to the woman, saying “Don’t cry” (Lk. 7:13). The then proceeds to touch the stretcher, stopping the funeral procession in its tracks, then telling the son “Young man, I say to you, get up” (Lk. 7:14). The son then sat up and began speaking, evidence that beyond a shadow of a doubt, he was now alive, ending his own funeral, and the crowd praised God at that moment (Lk. 7:15-16).

This is a portrait of Jesus painted by Luke to reflect one of his primary goals to show the humanity of Jesus. As Limbaugh so eloquently puts it, this story shows the reader that “Unlike fallen human beings, Jesus’ unique compassion stems from His infinite love and sinless perfection. Uncluttered with His own personal concerns, His empathy is wholly directed toward others. No matter the enormity of our pain, Jesus feels it, and we can always lean on Him for comfort.”[8] This is a portrait of Jesus that can be universally accepted, as he seeks the comfort and restoration of others over himself. This act of compassion and miraculous resurrection are only possible by a Jesus who is fully God and fully man.

In addition to this, Luke illustrates that Jesus will serve a new function in the kingdom of God in Luke 7:36-50. Through another shocking display, while at the dinner table with a Pharisee named Simon, a sinful woman enters, crying and anointing Jesus’s feet with expensive perfumed oil. This act is scandalous to the Pharisee, Simon, who invited Jesus, primarily because Jesus is allowing this impure woman to touch him (Lk. 7:36-39). Jesus then responds to Simon’s thoughts as a parable of two debtors whose loans were forgiven. The central question of this parable is “Which of them will love him more?” (Lk. 4:42, CEB), referencing the fact that one of these proverbial debtors was forgiven a far greater amount than the other. Simon answers by saying the one who was forgiven more will love more. Jesus uses this answer to the parable to explain what he will do next. He compares the humility and honor the woman is displaying towards him, and saying that Simon did not show him such honor, ultimately making the point that the one who is forgiven much loves much, and the one who is forgiven little loves little (Lk. 7:44-47). After this discourse, Jesus then turns to the woman and finally says “Your sins are forgiven” (Lk. 7:49). This statement shocks the guests, and they wonder what authority Jesus must forgive sins (Lk. 7:49). Then, Jesus goes one step further and tells the woman “Your faith has saved you. Go in peace” (Lk. 7:50).

This entire scene illustrates a couple key points. In keeping with the theme of the upside-down kingdom, this event shows the lowly being raised up in the woman’s sins being forgiven, and the lofty being brought low in Jesus’s rebuke of Simon. This also shows Jesus as an agent of God’s forgiveness, an authority no other man could hold, as the Pharisees make clear in their response to Jesus forgiving the woman. This highlights Jesus’s key role in replacing the temple functions that had previously been agents of forgiveness of sins, and now Jesus is the granter of forgiveness. In a sacrificial gesture of pouring expensive oil in Jesus’s feet, this reflects the reverence this woman has for Jesus, and a similar sacrificial gesture that would have been performed as a ritual cleansing for sins under Levitical law.[9] This image of Jesus having the agency to forgive sins “carries with it suggestions that he is replacing the temple functions or at least that his actions are on par with the temple”.[10] Jesus is not merely a prophet, but as the son of God, he plays an active redemptive role on God’s ultimate plan for humanity.

Pneumatology – Jesus’s Accessibility to the Holy Spirit

With Jesus now established at the son of God, and the agent through which God is bringing the redemption of his upside-down kingdom, Luke seeks to show the power of the Holy Spirit in his gospel. Luke, as the author of this gospel as well as Acts, has shown particular interest in the role of the Holy Spirit in bringing God’s kingdom to the world. In Luke, the role of the Holy Spirit is still limited to some chosen few, and Jesus who performs signs and wonders by this spirit and imparts its authority to his disciples.

The first accounts of the Holy Spirit’s activation can be found in the prophetic words of the angels regarding John’s birth to Zechariah (Lk. 1:15), and to Mary regarding her miraculous conception of Jesus (Lk. 1:35). Once Jesus is conceived, Elizabeth is filled with the Holy Spirit and speaks prophetically about him (Lk. 1:41-45). Then after John is born, Zechariah prophecies about his son (Lk. 1:67-79), and after Jesus is born, Simeon prophecies about him (Lk. 2:25-35).[11] These prophetic moves of the Holy Spirit solidified the redemptive message of the coming Messiah by affirming prophecies and promises of scripture, and they set the stage for the roles John the Baptist and Jesus were to play in the plan for God’s kingdom. This shows that the Holy Spirit is the agent by which God’s ultimate will is done.

Then, as Jesus is ready to begin his earthly ministry, the Holy Spirit is the commissioning agent in Jesus’s baptism. As Luke has written, “and the Holy Spirit, in bodily form, descended on him like a dove. And a voice from heaven said, “You are my dearly loved Son, and you bring me great joy.” (Lk. 3:22) Shortly after this, Jesus was led into the wilderness for forty days prior to the start of his ministry. This passage shows that this moment of baptism was Jesus’s anointing by the Holy Spirit that set began his primary mission, but just as importantly, this image foreshadows the disciples’ baptism of the Holy Spirit in Acts.[12] But perhaps most importantly, it shows that the Holy Spirit’s primary role is to empower the spread of the kingdom of God, first with Jesus, later with the disciples, and today in Jesus’s empowered followers.

In almost every instance the Holy Spirit is referenced, it is in relation to all three parts of the trinity. The most significant account of the Holy Spirit’s trinitarian role is in Luke 24:46-49. After Jesus was crucified, buried, and resurrected on the third day, Luke recounts several instances where Jesus appeared to people before he ascended into heaven. There is a significant account of Jesus walking with two disciples on the Emmaus Road, and directly following that encounter, Luke shows Jesus appearing to the rest of the disciples, having the disciples touch his scars and witness him eating solid food to prove his bodily resurrection. After they witnessed this, Jesus says to them in Luke 24:46-49:

Yes, it was written long ago that the Messiah would suffer and die and rise from the dead on the third day. It was also written that this message would be proclaimed in the authority of his name to all the nations, beginning in Jerusalem: ‘There is forgiveness of sins for all who repent.’ You are witnesses of all these things. And now I will send the Holy Spirit, just as my Father promised. But stay here in the city until the Holy Spirit comes and fills you with power from heaven.

This passage serves several purposes in Luke’s gospel. It summarizes the key points of Jesus’s ministry on earth, which were to fulfill the Old Testament prophecies, to proclaim the gospel to all nations, starting with the Jews and spreading to the Gentiles, making clear that the salvation message is forgiveness and repentance, and the promise of the empowerment of the Holy Spirit to the disciples. Earlier in Luke’s gospel the disciples are given limited power from the Holy Spirit to cast out demons and heal sickness (Lk. 9:1), but now, the empowerment of the Holy Spirit will be the chief agent of bringing the gospel to the nations, not just casting out demons and healing sickness. The Holy Spirit is given in the measure that in necessary for the kingdom of God to be preached to those who need to hear it.

Soteriology – The Way to the Kingdom Through the Triune God

With a full understanding of the trinitarian functions of God’s coming kingdom through Jesus as empowered by the Holy Spirit, one can see the picture of salvation in full view. Salvation is not simply following God’s law, confessing Jesus with one’s lips, or witnessing or partaking in signs and wonders. It is all of these in harmony that cause one’s heart to change and one’s life to turn eternally towards the glory of God’s kingdom. Since this salvation is highly spiritual, and cannot be obtained through works, Jesus explains to the rich man when he asks who can be saved, “What is impossible for humans is possible for God” (Lk. 18:27) This one, simple phrase is perhaps the most profound statement of the message of salvation, right next to “The Human One came to seek and save the lost.” (Lk. 19:10) Luke’s primary goal in writing this gospel, as he is writing to a Greek-Gentile audience, “Luke is determined to show that the Jewish story about the Jewish Messiah fulfilling Old Testament prophecies is relevant to Gentiles as well, as they are also part of God’s salvation plan for mankind. Jesus takes the Gospel message to the Gentiles and includes them in His ministry and healings.” [13] It is clear for knowledge of scripture and the character of Jesus that this message is for Jews and Gentiles alike, but to better illustrate this universal message of salvation, here are several passages that Luke highlights.

The first to proclaim the Messianic message of salvation was John the Baptist in Luke 3:8-14. In plain language, John says “Who warned you to escape from the angry judgement that is coming soon? Produce fruit that shows you have changed your hearts and lives. And don’t even think about saying to yourselves, Abraham is our father. I tell you that God is able to raise up Abraham’s children from these stones.” (Lk. 3:7-8) In this proclamation, John makes a couple key points. He first frames this message with a coming judgement from God, giving a sense of urgency to this message. He then explains that to escape this judgement, it will take decisive spiritual action through turning from sin and living a life that shows spiritual transformation. He then makes a rather provocative statement about the children of Abraham, implying that being a child of Abraham alone was not enough to escape judgement, and that God could essentially make new children of Abraham if he so desired, reinforcing the message of Jesus indicating that God’s kingdom gates were opening beyond the nation of Israel, but to all the nations of the world. As Green puts it, “John’s proclamation ensures that his baptism is understood as an assault on the status quo, that to participate in his baptism is to embrace behaviors rooted in a radical realignment with God’s purpose.”[14] This relates back to Luke’s primary themes that this kingdom is for everyone, and it is the upside-down version of what the Jews were expecting.

Jesus also gives the parable of the Good Samaritan to give a practical image of what it looks like live with the fruit of salvation. This is framed in an answer to the direct question from the legal expert in Luke 10:25-37 concerning salvation. First, the legal expert asks what he must do to gain eternal life (Lk. 10:25). Then Jesus responds with a question, testing this expert’s knowledge in the law, to which this expert answers correctly by reciting Deuteronomy 6:5 and Leviticus 19:18 (Lk. 10:26-28). But not satisfied with this, the legal expert asks for clarification on the ‘neighbor’ is, which prompts Jesus’s parable (Lk. 10:29). Jesus paints a picture of a man beaten and left for dead on a roadside. Three characters pass this man. The first two are a priest and a Levite, who would be highly esteemed Jewish people, but they pass by this man, paying him no mind (Lk. 10:30-32). But the third person is the one who acts: a Samaritan. It is important to note that in this story the Samaritan is “moved by compassion”, meaning that there was no other obligation for this man to help, but he was driven by a divine sense of justice and love, reflecting the same attitude Jesus had in many of his acts of service. By using a Samaritan, a non-Jewish foreigner, as the primary image of neighbor-ship and salvation is provocative. It subverts the expectations of who will be saved and who will be a neighbor. Jesus does this to show that the status or the nationality of a person is not important in matters of the kingdom. What matters is, as John would say, the fruit that shows a changed heart and a changed life, which this Samaritan clearly has.

This parable not only shows what salvation looks like in a practical sense, but is a symbolic representation of Christ life, and his eventual sacrifice on the cross. As Snodgrass states, “Patristic exegesis agreed unanimously that this parable is an allegory of salvation…. The Samaritan mirrored Christ’s saving work…”[15] In the same way the Samaritan stopped and gave everything to see that the man on the side of the road was taken care of, and paid the cost of his rehabilitation, shows the extent to which Christ was willing to go for humanity, and the extent to which humanity should be able to go to care for its neighbors, as Jesus ends this parable with the command, “Go and do likewise” (Lk. 10:37).

It is also worth noting that Luke has the most references to Old Testament Gentiles who experienced God’s grace, furthering his primary goal of showing that the gospel message is universal. He first does this through a genealogy that extends all the way back to the father of humanity, Adam, unlike Matthew’s genealogy that only goes back to the father of the Hebrew people, Abraham.[16] He also includes characters such as the widow of Zarephath, Naaman the Syrian, the Queen of the South, and the men of Nineveh as examples of people from other nations who accepted the wisdom of God, broadening the historical scope of Israel’s narrative.[17] All of these items are significant and unique to the gospel message Luke is seeking to portray to his primarily Greek-Gentile readership.

Eschatology – Eternal Life Through Jesus & Coming Judgement

Jesus preached frequently about God’s “coming kingdom” as if its arrival was inevitable and immediate, and many people thought it was. In Luke 19:11, it was a commonly held belief among the disciples that the kingdom of God would appear right away. Towards the end of Jesus’s ministry is where a clearer picture of the end times and the coming kingdom and judgement become simultaneously clearer, and far more confusing. It would have been easier if Jesus gave a clear timeline of the events of the coming kingdom, but instead there is cryptic messaging about not knowing the time or day, and to instead be perpetually ready for Christ’s second coming, which sounds exhausting and elusive. However, there is more to these eschatological passages than signposts pointing into the never-ending fog. They seek to give helpful advice on how to live in the present with eyes towards heaven’s purposes.

Jesus teaches about these matters is Luke 12:42-46 in the parable of the faithful and unfaithful servant. The overall message preceding this illustration is to be prepared. The parable then describes a master’s servants fulfilling the responsibilities of his estates in his absence. The master will be happy to see his servants completing the responsibilities he gave them (Lk. 12:42-44). Then Jesus illustrates the opposite end of the spectrum, describing the servants who do not fulfill the tasks of the manager in his absence. Instead, seeing that they are alone, the begin to abuse the servants on the master’s estate and drink and get drunk (Lk. 12:45). The master will show up while they are distracted by their evil doing and will face a violent punishment (Lk. 12:46). This is a horrific juxtaposition of the faithful versus the unfaithful servants. While on the surface, this is saying not to neglect doing good, and those who commit evil will receive their justice, it has deeper implications for the church. Snodgrass gives the church a helpful perspective for this parable, and how it can apply to the church today:

An understanding of the gospel that does not include the future… is insufficient for dealing with the problem of evil…. At the same time Christians must avoid any fascination with and speculation about the end… that was not the purpose of the eschatological teaching. Its purpose was to give warning, to give hope, and to teach people how to live in the present…. The focus on faithfulness reminds us again that Christian faith is not about believing certain ideas but about living out convictions over the long haul. The church is often impressed with claims to faith. Claims and short-lived faith suffice for nothing. What counts is faithfulness to the end.[18]

This parable, like all of Jesus’s teachings about the final days, are to prompt a response in the present. His aim was to produce faithful servants to bring about the kingdom in the present, as well as assuring salvation and eternal life to the lost people of the world. He had limited time on earth to accomplish this mission among his disciples, and therefore would have to teach them as much as he could in his earthy ministry so when his time would finally come, and he would be crucified, buried, and resurrected, that they could carry forth the mission of the gospel. Like the faithful servants, the church should take this as a charge to steward the commission of Jesus, completing the tasks assigned by Jesus and being prepared at any moment for his return.

Another key eschatological passage is the parable of the rich man and Lazarus in Luke 16:19-31. This parable outlines the life of two characters on opposite ends of the social spectrum: a rich man clothed in expensive garments, and a poor man at the gate covered in sores, begging for crumbs (Lk. 16:19-21). Then, a flip happens in the afterlife. Lazarus is elevated to heaven and placed by Abraham’s side, and the rich man is pulled down to the place of the dead to be tormented (Lk. 16:22-23). The rich man sees Lazarus and calls out, begging for relief from his torture, but Abraham tells him that since in his life he experienced comfort, he would be tormented for eternity, and Lazarus experienced torment in life, so he would live in comfort for eternity, and there was no way for either of them to pass between the crevasse that separated them (Lk. 16:24-26). The rich man then thinks of his brothers who are still alive and wants to warn them of the coming torment if they fail to change their ways. He urges Abraham to send the spirit of a resurrected Lazarus to his house to warn them, but Abraham says that will not be necessary. The rich man’s family has the Law and the Prophets, and if they are not convinced to change their ways from the information they already have, then a miracle surely will not make the difference (Lk. 16:27-31).

This parable offers a staggeringly clear view of the afterlife. The image of tenants of heaven and hell conversing with each other over a great crevasse may not be literal, but the nature of heaven and hell are clear: comfort and pain. This parable hinges on the reversal of the roles of Lazarus and the rich man, continuing in the upside-down theme of Luke. As Kraybill puts it, “High and low reverse. Earlier, Lazarus had reached up to the rich man, begging for crumbs. Now the rich reveler reaches up to Abraham and begs for a drop of water. Echoes of Mary’s Magnificat ring in our ears: ‘He has filled the hungry with good things and sent the rich away empty’”. This not only reveals the nature of God’s kingdom in eternal perspective, but it shows how the living can avoid the fate of the rich man. When the rich man begs to send a sign to his living family, Abraham says all the signs they need are in the scriptures. This is a similar response Jesus has when asked for a sign in Luke 11:29-32, and he says the sign is in Jonah.

Conclusion

Like all four of the gospels, the salvation of Jesus through forgiveness and repentance is illustrated, but after investigating the theological intricacies of Luke’s gospel, with his specific audience and purpose in mind, on can see how Luke’s gospel highlights distinct angles of this gospel message. Through highlighting some of Luke’s unique material, parables, and key verses and stories, he wants his audience to see that Jesus’s message of God’s kingdom was not just for the Jewish people but for all people, and he was bringing about this kingdom in upside-down ways, humbling the proud and raising up the lowly.

Notes

[1] Donald B. Kraybill, The Upside-Down Kingdom: Anniversary Edition (Harrisonburg, VA: Herald Press, 2018), 11.

[2] Kraybill., 15.

[3] Joel B. Greene, The Gospel of Luke (Grand Rapids: William B. Endermans Publishing Company, 1997), 526

[5] Green, 527

[6] MacArthur, John. Luke: The Savior of the World (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2007), 3.

[6] David Limbaugh. The True Jesus: Uncovering the Divinity of Christ in the Gospels (Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2017), 222.

[7] Limbaugh, 103.

[8] Limbaugh, David. The True Jesus: Uncovering the Divinity of Christ in the Gospels (Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2017), 171.

[9] Bock, Darrell L., Luke: The NIV Application Commentary. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), 218.

[10] Snodgrass, Klyne R. Stories with Intent. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 89-90.

[11] Norman L. Geisler, A Popular Survey of the New Testament. (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2007), 88.

[12] Joel B. Greene, The Gospel of Luke (Grand Rapids: William B. Endermans Publishing Company, 1997), 186.

[13] Limbaugh, David. The True Jesus: Uncovering the Divinity of Christ in the Gospels (Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2017), 102-103.

[14] Joel B. Green, The Gospel of Luke (Grand Rapids: William B. Endermans Publishing Company, 1997), 173. [15] Klyne R. Snodgrass Stories with Intent. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 347.

[16] Elwell, Walter A. & Eugene H. Merrill, Encountering the New Testament: A Historical and Theological Survey. Third Ed., (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013), 194.

[17] Elwell & Merrill, 197

[18] Snodgrass, Klyne R. Stories with Intent. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 504.